The Co -Evolution of Plants and Humans
For as long as humans have existed, plants have been our companions and our source of food, shelter, and healing support. We’ve co-evolved with the plant kingdom, forming a relationship so deeply rooted that it has shaped both our biology and behavior. Over thousands and thousands of years, we’ve learned to understand plants on a molecular level, responding to the chemical compounds they offer, whether for nourishment, protection, or for helping us stay well. Yet in today’s rushed world, so much of this ancient knowledge and connection has been forgotten, buried beneath the weight of modern living.
Shipibo Elder..Sacred Wisdom Keeper of the Amazon
But there is a renaissance happening, a revival, where the wisdom of plants is once again being rediscovered, and we’re reconnecting with the natural world in ways our ancestors once did. Our genetics, in a sense still carry the memory of this relationship. Deep within us, there is a potential to remember—to tap into that ancient bond and heal, not just physically, but emotionally and spiritually as well.
This much too long blog post is my attempt to help remap this connection and I hope, provide a path for you to join me on this fascinating journey of remembering who we are and how deeply nature has and continues to shape our biology and our consciousness.
Genetic Adaptation
How Plants and Humans Influence Each Other
Over hundreds of thousands of years, plants and humans have shaped each other’s evolution. Plants have profoundly impacted our biology, immune systems, and even our consciousness. From the chemicals plants use to defend themselves to the nutrients they provide, the genetic relationship between plants and humans is an intricate dance of mutual adaptation. As we explore these connections, I am aiming to elucidate that plants have not only provided essential resources for human health but have also played a significant role in shaping our biology in profound and unexpected ways.
Immune System Development- Survive and Thrive
Plants have developed complex chemical compounds over millennia to protect themselves from predators, pests, and disease. These compounds—such as alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenes, and glycosides—serve as both defenses and communication tools. As humans evolved, we learned to metabolize and benefit from these plant chemicals, which interact with our immune systems and enhance our ability to fight infection. Plants like garlic, turmeric, and echinacea contain compounds that help boost immunity, and over time, humans have adapted to these natural defenses. Our immune system has evolved to recognize and utilize plant compounds, highlighting the deeply intertwined relationship between us and the plant world.
Echinacea: A Detailed Example
Echinacea, a well-known herb in herbal medicine, provides a fascinating example of co-evolution between plants and humans. This ancient genus, known for its distinctive cone-shaped flowers, is part of the Asteraceae family, which has a rich and diverse evolutionary history. The cone shape of Echinacea evolved to attract specific pollinators, such as bees, butterflies, and birds. This structure encourages pollinators to land at the center, ensuring effective pollen transfer and promoting genetic diversity. How brilliant is that?
Echinacea’s immune-enhancing properties come from its array of phytochemicals, including alkylamides, flavonoids, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides. These compounds, evolved by Echinacea to protect itself from pathogens and stress, have been absorbed into human medicinal practices for good reason, creating a co-evolutionary relationship where both plants and humans benefit.
Echinacea's alkylamides play a key role in stimulating our immune system. These compounds activate immune cells, particularly macrophages and T-cells, enhancing the body’s response to foreign invaders. Flavonoids and glycosides in Echinacea help combat infection. These compounds, evolved as part of Echinacea’s natural defenses, to protect the plant from fungi, bacteria, and viruses. For humans, flavonoids act as potent antioxidants, shielding our cells from oxidative stress while supporting the body’s immune response. The glycosides in echinacea support the liver and lymphatic systems, ensuring that the body’s detoxification and immune surveillance functions remain strong.
(*of note here is that some plant glycosides, like those in Echinacea, support immunity and reduce inflammation, while others can be toxic. Cardiac glycosides, cyanogenic glycosides, some saponin glycosides can damage red blood cells and excessive glucosinolates may disrupt thyroid function. )
For humans, many different plant compounds function as a tool for boosting immune defense, helping us fight infections like the common cold, flu, and for all kinds of respiratory ailments and infections whether bacterial or viral. Over time, humans have adapted to metabolize alkylamides, some glycosides (not all) , and other bioactive compounds, integrating them into our immune processes.
This interaction highlights a remarkable aspect of co-evolution, where humans have come to rely on the great medicinal potential of Echinacea, strengthening our immune system. As master herbalist Donald Yance emphasizes, this dynamic relationship is not one-sided. Plants have evolved to protect themselves, while humans have adapted to metabolize and benefit from these compounds, creating a mutually beneficial connection that spans generations.
Through our long history of using plants for staying alive, we’ve not only discovered remedies like Echinacea but have also developed an intrinsic understanding of how their compounds can enhance our vitality. Our immune system has developed in response to the presence of these plant compounds, showcasing how deeply intertwined our evolutionary paths truly are. Echinacea, like other medicinal plants, serves as a bridge between the natural world and human health, a testament to the genetic memory that links us to the flora that sustains us.
Plant-based Nutrients and Genetic Expression
Humans have also adapted to process plant-based nutrients, vitamins, minerals, and fiber. Over time, we developed specific enzymes to break down and absorb these nutrients. For example, the number of copies of the amylase gene in our genome is directly related to our diet. Populations that traditionally consumed higher amounts of starchy foods, like rice, potatoes, or corn, tend to have more copies of this gene. This is an example of how human genomes have adapted to plant foods, allowing us to thrive in environments where plants have been a constant source of nourishment.
A study published in Human Genetics by T. J. Hines et al. (2007) examined genetic variation in the gene encoding the enzyme myrosinase, which breaks down glucosinolates in cruciferous vegetables. The study found that populations with higher traditional consumption of cruciferous vegetables, such as those in northern Europe, exhibited genetic variants that allowed for more efficient processing of these compounds. These variants were linked to better detoxification abilities, potentially reducing cancer risks in these populations. This illustrates how human genetic adaptation can be shaped by long-standing dietary habits involving plant-based nutrients.
The Endocannabinoid System
Humans possess a sophisticated endocannabinoid system (ECS), a network of receptors and endogenous compounds that plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes, including mood, appetite, pain, and immune function. This system helps maintain homeostasis by responding to both internal and external stimuli. Interestingly, certain plants, like cannabis, produce compounds—THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and CBD (cannabidiol) that interact with the ECS, mimicking the body’s natural endocannabinoids.
Cannabis has long been recognized for its profound impact on human consciousness and well-being due to its interaction with the ECS. THC binds to cannabinoid receptors in the brain, producing the characteristic “high” that alters perception, mood, and cognition. Meanwhile, CBD has garnered attention for its non-psychoactive properties, showing promise in reducing anxiety, pain, and inflammation by modulating the ECS. Cannabis has been historically used for medicinal purposes across cultures, including ancient China, Egypt, and India, suggesting that humans may have evolved alongside cannabis, with our biology adapting to the compounds in this plant over millennia.
The deep relationship between cannabis and the human ECS highlights how plants can influence our physiology, emotional well-being, and our spiritual evolution. Yet cannabis is not the only plant that interacts with the ECS. Echinacea is another plant that can modulate immune responses, with its alkylamides influencing the body’s immune system and potentially impacting ECS pathways. Even non-psychoactive plants like Echinacea play a role in helping regulate the body’s endocannabinoid system. In addition to cannabis and Echinacea, black pepper contains beta-caryophyllene, a terpene that binds to CB2 receptors in the ECS. Beta-caryophyllene has anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, offering therapeutic effects for pain management and immune modulation. Turmeric's curcumin influences CB2 receptors, and kava promotes relaxation through ECS modulation. Rhodiola and other adaptogenic herbs may also help balance stress responses, and clove's eugenol also interacts with cannabinoid receptors, providing pain relief. Ginger and cacao also support ECS function, enhancing mood and reducing inflammation. These herbs and so many more contribute to ECS balance and promote overall well-being.
Medicinal Mushrooms and Immune Response
A Symbiotic Relationship through the “Eyes” of Plants
Plants, like humans, have their own survival strategies, and one of the primary ways they benefit from herbivores/omnivores is through seed dispersal. As animals consume fruits, seeds, or plant parts, they carry these seeds to new locations, where they can germinate in a fresh environment. Many plants, especially fruit-bearing ones, have evolved to attract herbivores and omnivores to help them spread their seeds. For example, berries such as blackberries and raspberries have evolved to be eaten by animals, whose digestive systems help break down the tough seed coatings, allowing the seeds to sprout after passing through the digestive tract.
Herbivores/Omnivores also play a role in nutrient cycling. As they consume plants, they return valuable nutrients—like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium—back into the soil through their waste. This process helps enrich the soil, making it more fertile and conducive to plant growth. Some plants, especially those in the legume family, have developed a symbiotic relationship with herbivores that allows them to thrive even in nutrient-poor soils. These plants rely on the herbivores' waste to cycle nutrients back into the earth, enriching the soil and benefiting the plants that grow there.
Herbivory as a Selection Pressure (Toxicity and Defense Evolution)
The relationship between plants and herbivores is a dynamic one, with both sides constantly evolving in response to each other’s strategies. As herbivores develop resistance to plant toxins, plants evolve new ways to defend themselves. As said prior, many plants produce chemical defenses like alkaloids, terpenes, and phenolics to deter herbivores, and interestingly, these same compounds often have beneficial effects on human health. For example, ginseng, ginger, and turmeric contain bioactive compounds that are designed to ward off pests but also interact with human biochemistry in beneficial ways. This is a powerful reminder of how plants evolve to protect themselves while simultaneously providing mammals like humans with tools for healing and wellness.
Mutualistic Relationships
Some plants have evolved mutualistic relationships with herbivores/ omnivores, where both parties benefit. Certain plants offer nectar or food in exchange for seed dispersal or pollination by herbivores. In some cases, herbivores help control competing plants, allowing the host plant to thrive. The co-evolution of plants and herbivores often leads to the development of traits that benefit both. For example, many plants produce fruits with appealing colors or scents to attract herbivores, who then consume the fruits and disperse the seeds. This symbiotic relationship between plants and herbivores ensures that plants can spread their genetic material while providing food for the animals that consume them. Over time, herbivores may also evolve mechanisms for better digesting or dealing with plant toxins, creating a balance between plant defense and herbivore survival.
Attracting Pollinators
Herbivores and omnivores play an indirect yet vital role in attracting pollinators. When plants are damaged by herbivores, they respond by releasing a complex array of chemical signals, including essential oils and terpenoids—nature’s way of communicating. These volatile compounds can attract predators or parasitoids that help control herbivore populations, while also signaling pollinators to visit. This brilliant chemical defense is part of a plant’s broader ecological strategy to maximize reproductive success, ensuring pollinators are drawn to the plants that need them most. In many cases herbivory estimulates a plant to grow more vigorously, producing more leaves, flowers, or fruit in response to damage. This evolutionary adaptation not only sustains herbivores but also enhances the plant’s chances of reproduction and ability to reproduce abundantly, demonstrating the deep interconnectedness of life.
Psychoactive Plants and the Brain
As said above, many plants contain psychoactive compounds that interact with the brain, shaping both individual consciousness and the broader human evolutionary process. Throughout history, cultures around the world have worked with a vast array of psychoactive plants and mushrooms, using them for visionary, medicinal, and spiritual purposes. As Christian Rätsch explores in The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants, botanicals have long been revered for their mind-altering properties. The ancient Egyptians used blue lotus (Nymphaea caerulea) as a sacred entheogen, while indigenous African traditions have valued wild dagga (Leonotis leonurus) for its euphoric effects. Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), often overlooked now was once a sacred entheogen. It contains myristicin, which metabolizes into compounds affecting serotonin and adrenergic receptors, altering consciousness at high doses. Syrian rue (Peganum harmala), rich in harmala alkaloids, acts as a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), amplifying the effects of other psychoactive substances and playing a key role in Middle Eastern and Central Asian rituals.
These plants exert their effects by interacting with various neurotransmitter systems, influencing perception, mood, and cognition. Blue lotus contains aporphine alkaloids that modulate dopamine receptors, producing mild euphoria and dreamlike states. Wild dagga affects cannabinoid receptors, inducing relaxation and a sense of well-being. Salvia divinorum, through its unique action on kappa-opioid receptors, induces intense visions and dissociative experiences. Meanwhile, nightshades like mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) and henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) contain tropane alkaloids that influence acetylcholine receptors, historically used in shamanic and magical traditions to induce trance states.
Psychoactive plants hold a significant place in our historical evolution and can serve as profound allies on the journey of life. Their biochemical interactions not only shape human consciousness but may have also played a role in the evolution of our neural pathways, reinforcing our deep, co-evolutionary bond with the botanical world. Even our modern obsession with coffee and chocolate—both rich in psychoactive compounds—hints at an ancient, primal connection to plant-derived states of mind.
The interaction between plant chemicals and brain function not only underscores our deep dependence on plants for mental and emotional well-being but also reveals a co-evolutionary process—one in which both plants and humans have shaped each other’s development over time. In our case, this extends to spiritual evolution, as visionary experiences allow us to perceive beyond the constraints of our ordinary, narrow thinking mind. Similarly, psychoactive plants may aid in processing trauma and addiction, offering profound healing potential, though these journeys can be complex and require thoughtful integration.
Addiction, Psychoactive Plants and Evolution
Fascinating to me are theories of “nature deficit disorders” including substance abuse and addiction. Dr. Gabor Maté, renowned for his work on addiction and trauma, discusses the role of neurotransmitters in addiction, particularly dopamine and serotonin. In his book In the Realm of Hungry Ghosts: Close Encounters with Addiction, Maté explores how substances that affect the brain’s dopaminergic and serotonergic systems play a role in addiction. Psychoactive plants, many of which have been used ceremonially for centuries, may offer a pathway to supporting recovery by helping to regulate neurotransmitters and facilitate profound psychological insights. Plants such as ayahuasca, which contains harmala alkaloids (MAOIs) and DMT, have been studied for their potential to reset neural pathways associated with addiction and trauma. Similarly, psilocybin-containing mushrooms show promise in promoting neuroplasticity and emotional processing, potentially addressing the underlying causes of addictive behaviors rather than merely suppressing symptoms. By working with these plants in intentional and therapeutic settings, individuals may find a way to reconnect with themselves, process trauma, and shift the compulsive patterns that drive addiction.
It poses some interesting questions. Does the absence or misuse of conscious and ceremonial rituals with psychoactive plants in modern life contribute to the rise in addictive behaviors? These plants were once an integral part of human culture and evolution, but now they are mostly used recreationally or have been vilified and made illegal, cutting people off from their traditional, consciousness-expanding role. I can’t help but question whether, without these biologically imprinted experiences, many people find themselves stuck in destructive patterns, unable to process trauma in a safe, supportive way. We now know that psychoactive plants and mushrooms can help rewire neural pathways and aid in trauma recovery, so I wonder if, in their absence, that many turn to artificial substitutes in an attempt to cope and to fill this ancient, unmet need. Hmmm. As we continue to study this ancient relationship, we may uncover even more evidence of how profoundly plants have shaped human biology and our brains, perhaps even explaining our collective obsession with coffee, tobacco, cannabis, spirits of variety and chocolate as remnants of a primal, evolutionary craving.
The Genetic Memory of Nature
Another fascinating layer to this idea is the concept that our bodies may carry a form of "genetic memory" of our long history with plants. While this idea is still being explored, it suggests that our genes may harbor traces of environmental influences our ancestors experienced, including their deep and enduring connections with the natural world. This genetic imprint could explain why we are often drawn to certain plants for healing, nourishment, or comfort….that our genetic code may hold remnants of past interactions with specific plants and fungi that were essential to our survival and well-being.
I can personally speak to this concept through an experience I had while harvesting the bark of black birch (Betula lenta) from a fallen branch. As I worked alongside a friend, gently peeling away the bark and glowing inner layer, I marveled at the beauty of the wood and inhaled its intoxicating sarsaparilla scent. The aroma washed over us with a cooling and uplifting note of clarity and strength. These powerful aromatic methyl salicylates, known for their medicinal properties, were working their magic on our olfactory systems—our sense of smell being deeply tied to memory, perhaps because aroma is so good at triggering the hippocampus. I soon found myself in a meditative state, almost as if transported to another time, working with this sacred tree in the same way my ancestors may have. Some of my roots trace back to Northern Russia, where this tree was reguraly worked with for food, preservation, pain management, and medicinal purposes. It's sometimes easy to forget that long before pharmacies and hospitals, humans survived by relying on the local flora, crafting remedies from the plants around them. What I felt that day….that connection showed me the genetic memory could still be alive within us, encoded in our genetic makeup, a subtle but profound link to the ancient practices of our ancestors.
Scholars have explored similar ideas regarding genetic memory and the co-evolution of humans with plants, creating a compelling case for how our biology is deeply intertwined with the ecosystems that shaped our survival. This connection isn’t just biological; it's encoded in the very fabric of our evolutionary history.
Rupert Sheldrake’s theory of morphic resonance in The Presence of the Past proposes that living organisms, including humans, are connected to a larger field of collective memory. According to Sheldrake, we may carry genetic memories of our relationships with nature, linking us to plants, fungi, and ecosystems in ways we don't yet fully comprehend. Along similar lines, biologist Lynn Margulis emphasized the cooperative nature of life, arguing that evolution is driven by symbiosis and not competition. Her theory of endosymbiosis suggests that our evolution alongside plants, microbes, and other species is integral to our biological development, possibly encoding memories of our ancient relationship with nature in our DNA.
Terence McKenna, the pioneering ethnobotanist, added depth to this idea by focusing on the role of psychoactive plants in human evolution. McKenna believed that our bond with nature, and specifically with entheogenic plants, may be encoded in our genetic memory, influencing the development of human consciousness and culture over millennia. McKenna speculated that DNA might not just be a repository for genetic information, but also a storehouse of cosmic or universal knowledge. According to McKenna, plants, especially those with psychoactive properties, served as guides in this unfolding process of evolution, shaping human consciousness and expanding the mind’s access to a greater universal wisdom encoded in the very structure of DNA.
Jeremy Narby, in The Cosmic Serpent, explores this further by suggesting that DNA itself may be an ancient repository of knowledge, deeply connected to the broader mysteries of life. Narby hypothesizes that the indigenous shamans' visions, often induced by entheogens, were not mere hallucinations but rather a direct communication with the intelligence embedded within the molecular structure of DNA. In his view, the symbolic patterns and forms revealed to shamans in altered states of consciousness might reflect the very structures of life at the genetic level. Narby’s work implies that human beings may have tapped into a kind of universal or cosmic knowledge encoded within their DNA. Knowledge that connects not only our species but all living organisms.
Merlin Sheldrake, Rupert's son, further expanded on this interconnectedness in his book Entangled Life, particularly focusing on fungi. He explored how mycorrhizal networks, hidden underground connective webs, serve as a model for understanding the genetic memory of interconnectedness. These networks, along with the larger symbiosis between plants and fungi, imply that evolution is not a linear competition for survival but a complex web of interdependent relationships passed down through generations. We know now that trees are able to communicate via the mycelial network and they feed one another this way creating a mutually beneficial relationship with the mycelium.
Richard Evans Schultes, often regarded as the father of modern ethnobotany, studied the profound cultural and genetic bonds humans share with plants, particularly psychoactive and medicinal plants. His work emphasizes how knowledge of these plants has been passed through generations, likely encoded in the very biology of cultures that relied on them for survival and spiritual growth.
These scholars…Sheldrake, Margulis, McKenna, Narby and Schultes, offer a unified vision that our relationship with plants and nature is not merely an interaction but a foundational part of our evolutionary journey. Our biology, consciousness, and culture have been shaped by this ancient bond, one that is encoded in our genes. As we revive interest in herbalism, sustainability, and indigenous wisdom, we find ourselves reconnecting with this deep, biologically encoded knowledge rediscovering the ancient memories of our co-evolution with the natural world.
Indigenous Shamans & Folk Healers
Guardians of Human-Plant Co-Evolution
Indigenous Knowledge Keepers and the Sacred Web of Life
This delicate dance of co-evolution has been guided, in large part, by the wisdom of Indigenous shamans and folk healers, whose sacred knowledge and practices illuminate the intricate web of life humans share with plants.Indigenous traditions teach that plants are not passive resources, but active participants in the story of life. They are healers, teachers, and collaborators in humanity's journey. Shamans and folk healers, have acted as the custodians of this knowledge and remind us that the co-evolution of humans and plants is not just a biological process but a spiritual and cultural one. It is a reciprocal relationship that has shaped not only ecosystems but also consciousness, healing, and human survival.
Richard Evans Schultes illuminated the intricate co-evolution of humans and plants through his groundbreaking studies. Immersed in the Amazonian rainforests, he explored the symbiotic relationship between Indigenous peoples and the botanical world, revealing a profound tapestry of medicinal, spiritual, and psychoactive plant use. His work championed the wisdom of Indigenous shamans, whose knowledge had been cultivated through centuries of interdependence with nature.
Through his research, Schultes revealed the remarkable ways in which humans and plants have co-evolved, shaping each other over millennia. He was taught by various Indigenous groups such as the Witoto (Huitoto) and Kofan (Cofán) of the Amazon, who shared their sophisticated understanding of medicinal and psychoactive plants, including their preparation techniques and spiritual significance. The Secoya and Tukano further deepened his insights into ritual plant use and their cosmological connections to the rainforest. In Mexico, Schultes learned from the Mazatec people, particularly the renowned curandera María Sabina, who introduced him to the sacred mushroom ceremonies involving psilocybin. (I will expound on her powerful work in a moment.) These Indigenous groups served as the cornerstone of Schultes’ work, passing down their intricate plant knowledge through oral traditions, ceremonies, and direct mentorship, shaping his understanding of the sacred and scientific interplay between humans and plants. He took great interest in the shamans of these unique groups.
Schultes observed shamans as the bridge between humanity and the plant world, embodying generations of co-evolved knowledge. This deep understanding, gained through observation, trial, and spiritual communion allowed them to recognize and unlock the medicinal and psychoactive potential of plants.
For shamans, healing extended beyond physical ailments, encompassing the spiritual and ecological balance essential for well-being. Plants were viewed as more than mere tools; they were sacred allies, possessing spirits that guided, taught, and healed. Schultes noted the reverence with which shamans approached psychoactive plants like ayahuasca, peyote, and psilocybin mushrooms. These were not merely substances but conscious entities in their own right, aiding humans in transcending ordinary reality to access deeper truths.
Schultes on Shamanic Practices
Rituals Rooted in Co-Evolution with Nature
Sacred Ceremonies
Plants like ayahuasca vine, psylocibin mushrooms and peyote cactus were central to transformative rituals aimed at healing, divination, and spiritual connection. These practices reflected millennia of co-adaptation between humans and their environment, as shamans learned to work with plant compounds to induce altered states of consciousness. Schultes documented the sophisticated methods shamans used to prepare plant medicines, blending species to enhance their synergistic effects. This intricate knowledge underscored the long-term co-evolution of humans with their plant counterparts. Shamanic training was a rigorous process, requiring initiates to endure fasting, isolation, and plant-centered rituals to attune to the natural world. Schultes highlighted this as a testament to the symbiotic relationship between humans and the ecological systems they inhabited.
Schultes marveled at the encyclopedic botanical knowledge of Indigenous communities, whose pharmacological accuracy rivaled that of modern science. Their understanding, though framed in spiritual terms, revealed a sophisticated awareness of plant chemistry and ecology.For shamans, physical and spiritual health were inseparable. They viewed illness as both a biological and spiritual imbalance, requiring interventions that harmonized the individual with the larger web of life. Schultes emphasized that Indigenous plant knowledge was deeply woven into their cosmology, shaping every aspect of life. This co-evolved wisdom reflected a worldview that saw humans as part of an interconnected ecological and spiritual continuum. Shamans were not just healers but also stewards of the ecosystems they inhabited. Schultes recognized their role in preserving biodiversity and maintaining ecological balance, noting that their practices often aligned with sustainable use. Indigenous shamanic traditions exemplified a co-evolutionary relationship with nature, where humans and plants evolved together to meet each other's needs. This deep integration offered lessons for modern societies disconnected from their ecological roots.
Schultes ultimately lamented the loss of Indigenous plant knowledge due to colonization, modernization, and deforestation. As the ecosystems and cultures that nurtured this wisdom were threatened, the delicate co-evolutionary balance risked being disrupted. He also criticized the tendency of Western science to overlook or devalue Indigenous knowledge, failing to recognize its profound scientific and spiritual insights.
Schultes also warned against the unethical extraction of plant knowledge urging respect and reciprocity toward the cultures that had preserved these co-evolved relationships.
Maria Sabina, Pysilocibin and Sacred
Plant Medicine
María Sabina was a Mazatec curandera from the mountains of Oaxaca, Mexico, renowned for her use of psilocybin mushrooms in healing ceremonies known as veladas. Born in the late 19th century, she inherited an ancient indigenous tradition that viewed psilocybin mushrooms as sacred intermediaries between humans and the divine. Her ceremonies, conducted in the Mazatec language, combined prayer, song, and the ingestion of the sacred fungi to facilitate healing, spiritual insight, and communication with higher realms. She believed that the mushrooms carried messages from divine entities and that, through their guidance, she could diagnose and treat illnesses, often blending Christian elements with pre-Hispanic shamanic wisdom. Her practices remained largely unknown outside her community until the 1950s when ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson visited her, eventually introducing psilocybin mushrooms to the Western world through publications in Life magazine. This exposure led to an influx of outsiders seeking psychedelic experiences, a phenomenon that deeply impacted her life and disrupted the sacred traditions of her people.
María Sabina is an important teacher for us because she represents a bridge between ancient wisdom and the modern world’s rediscovery of sacred plant medicine.Through her teachings, we are reminded that psychedelics are not mere substances but spiritual allies that demand respect, clear intention, and ethical use. She emphasized the interconnectedness of nature, spirit, and healing, rooted in a worldview that sees plants, elements, and cosmic forces as active spiritual agents. She spoke of the mushrooms as "holy children" and stressed that their power should be used with respect, reverence, and clear intention. Her chants, filled with poetic invocations of sacred figures, reflect a deep cosmological understanding of healing as a form of balance restoration rather than mere symptom relief. Despite the Western fascination with her knowledge, she lamented the commercialization and misuse of psychedelic rituals, believing that many outsiders sought only personal pleasure rather than true enlightenment. Her legacy endures through the resurgence of interest in indigenous wisdom, ethical psychedelic practices, and the ongoing study of entheogens as tools for spiritual and psychological healing.
Her story also serves as a cautionary tale. After R. Gordon Wasson publicized her work, Western seekers flooded her village, often disregarding the sacredness of her practice. This exploitation led to her ostracization by her own people and the dilution of an ancient spiritual tradition. Her life teaches us the importance of honoring Indigenous knowledge, protecting sacred practices from commercialization, and approaching plant medicines with humility. In a world increasingly drawn to psychedelics for healing, María Sabina’s teachings urge us to move beyond personal gain and into a deeper, reciprocal relationship with these medicines—one rooted in respect, spiritual discipline, and the acknowledgment of their Indigenous stewards. It is teachers like Maria that modeled what conscious co evolution with nature looked like and how we should aim to follow suit if we to keep evolving with entheogens.
Terence McKenna- Visionary Psychedelic Cosmonaut
Following María Sabina’s teachings, which emphasized the sacred and healing power of psilocybin mushrooms, Terence McKenna expanded upon their significance in a broader evolutionary and philosophical context.Terence McKenna was a visionary ethnobotanist, author, and philosopher whose work profoundly shaped modern understandings of psychedelics, human consciousness, and our co-evolution with nature. I first learned about him through brief youtube videos of him speaking with his iconic and mischivervious elvin voice…. as if he was a voice of nature itself. He was quite the character and a truly fasinating human. A lifelong explorer of plant medicines, McKenna was one of the most influential voices in psychedelic culture, blending science, mythology, and speculative theory to propose that certain psychoactive plants, especially psilocybin mushrooms, played a fundamental role in shaping human cognition. He saw psychedelics not as mere hallucinogens but as tools for expanding consciousness, unlocking ancient knowledge, and reconnecting humanity with the intelligence of the natural world. His ability to articulate complex ideas with poetic brilliance made him a central figure in the psychedelic renaissance, inspiring scientists, spiritual seekers, and psychonauts alike.
McKenna’s Stoned Ape Theory proposed that the consumption of Psilocybe cubensis by early hominids catalyzed cognitive evolution, enhancing visual acuity, promoting social bonding, and stimulating the development of language and culture. He saw psilocybin as a bridge between biology and consciousness, a compound that acted as a neural amplifier, accelerating brain function and creative problem-solving. Beyond evolution, McKenna speculated that psilocybin mushrooms might hold an alien or hyperdimensional intelligence, offering humans access to profound insights and altered states of awareness. In True Hallucinations, he described his experiences in the Amazon, where he and his brother Dennis engaged in deep experimentation with psilocybin, experiencing reality-shifting visions. In The Archaic Revival, he argued that psychedelics were catalysts for imagination, creativity, and spiritual awakening, urging a return to ancient plant-based wisdom. His work echoed Indigenous traditions, particularly those of curanderas like María Sabina, while framing psilocybin mushrooms as central to a new paradigm. One in which humans and nature co-evolve in a symbiotic dance of consciousness and transformation.
Peyote: A Catalyst for Co-Evolution
I want to pause here and acknowledge that when I speak about Indigenous practices, I am drawing upon prior research and my personal experiences. The rightful teachers of the profound and cosmic wisdom embedded in these medicines are the Indigenous peoples around the world, who have passed down this knowledge through generations. My hope in writing about various groups of medicine keepers is to illuminate the deep and ancient wisdom of native peoples, not to overshadow or claim expertise in knowledge that is their birthright to share or withhold. Their vital role in preserving and protecting humanity’s sacred bond with nature and each other carries invaluable lessons for all of us. We must approach these discussions with humility, curiosity, and an understanding that, as outsiders, we may never fully articulate or comprehend their cosmic wisdom as they do.
Peyote (Lophophora williamsii) is the only indigenous medicine I have worked with where I was invited by a Navajo chief to partake in a closed Medicine ceremony on a reservation in New Mexico. The experience was profound and humbling and one that forever altered my understanding of myself and the world. It revealed, with stark clarity, the deep reverence and gratitude woven into Indigenous traditions. Qualities so often absent in mainstream American culture and especially at that time in relation to taking entheogens. The compassion of the Navajo at this meeting, the sacred container they created, and the unwavering respect for the plant medicine and its lineage were unlike anything I had ever witnessed, and perhaps never will again.
Peyote is more than a cactus in that it seems to be an extension of this deep indigenous wisdom…a true teacher that imparts wisdom not only to individuals but to humanity as a whole. It has shaped both the physical landscapes of its native desert habitats and the spiritual landscapes of the Indigenous cultures that revere it. Among the Huichol (Wixarika), peyote is not merely a medicine but a divine messenger, a sacred being that offers healing, guidance, and a path toward living in harmony with nature.
Through ceremonies, prayers, and visions induced by peyote, generations of Indigenous peoples have learned to align their lives with the rhythms of the Earth, fostering sustainable practices that ensure the well-being of both human and non-human life. This co-evolutionary relationship exemplifies how plants have shaped not only human health but also cultural values, spiritual practices, and ecological stewardship.The co-evolution of humans and plants has been preserved and perpetuated by Indigenous shamans, ritual tribal experiences and through folk healers. These wisdom keepers and rituals serve as intermediaries between the human and plant worlds, understanding that plants are more than biochemical substances—they are sentient beings that respond to intention, respect, and reciprocity.Thus, ceremonies involving sacred plants are vital acts of co-evolution in action. By engaging with medicines like peyote, ayahuasca, and psilocybin in ritualized settings, humans can learn from these plants and mushrooms, internalizing their teachings and transmitting their wisdom through stories, songs, and practices. Shamans and healers facilitate this process, creating a sacred space where the spirit of the plant can communicate its knowledge.
San Pedro cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi) has also been worked with as an entheogen by Indigenous cultures in the Andes for over 3,000 years. Particularly by the Quechua and Inca peoples of Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia, its mescaline-rich brew is consumed in ceremonial rituals for spiritual insight, healing, and divination. Shamans and healers use it to connect with the spiritual world, achieve personal transformation, and address both physical and emotional ailments. These rituals often involve prayer, fasting, and immersion in nature, allowing participants to gain clarity, life insights, and guidance from ancestral spirits. Beyond the psychedelic experience, these practices honor the plant's sacred role in restoring balance and harmony.
Midwives, Witches, Alewives and Orishas
Throughout history, folk healers, witches, midwives, and alewives have also played a crucial role in preserving and transmitting botanical wisdom, acting as bridges between human communities and the healing power of plants. While Indigenous shamans were often deeply embedded in ritualistic and spiritual traditions tied to specific landscapes, their counterparts in European and other folk traditions—the cunning folk, hedge witches, and herbalists—were the quiet custodians of practical plant-based medicine.
Midwives were among the most trusted healers, tending to childbirth, fertility, and women's reproductive health with an extensive knowledge of plants that helped increase fertility or that could ease labor or when necessary, bring on menstruation. They understood the delicate balance between life and death, navigating a world where access to safe medical care was scarce and often dictated by social class and gender restrictions.
Witches and cunning folk, often village herbalists, were also once sought after for their deep knowledge of plant remedies, charms, and protective magic as well. Many carried the wisdom of entheogenic plants, using psychoactive preparations in divination, healing, and spirit work. However, their role also made them targets, especially during the rise of religious persecution in early modern Europe, when the wisdom of women and marginalized healers was demonized under the guise of witch hunts. Midwives were also among the hunted.
Alewives, often overlooked in historical narratives, were another vital group of plant knowledge keepers. These women brewed medicinal beers infused with herbs like yarrow, meadowsweet, creeping charlie and more which not only provided sustenance but some brews also carried healing and mildly psychoactive properties. Before brewing became industrialized and dominated by male guilds, women controlled the art of fermentation, passing down recipes that blended botanical medicine with everyday nourishment.
Folk healers, witches, midwives, and other traditional practitioners didn’t just tend to the physical needs of their communities—they were also the keepers of powerful magical and spiritual traditions. Their knowledge of plants wasn’t limited to their medicinal properties but extended to their magical and ritualistic uses. Much like Indigenous shamans of the rainforest, folk healers across the world, from the cunning folk of Europe to the curanderos of Latin America, the sangomas of Africa, and the miko of Japan, wove together medicine, magic, and spirituality in a sacred and practical way. They understood plants as bridges to the unseen world, using them in ceremonies, divination, and protective rituals. Herbs like mugwort and yarrow were often used in spells and charms, while psychoactive plants like belladonna, mandrake, and psilocybin mushrooms were employed for altered states of consciousness, connecting the healer with the divine and the spirit world. These practices weren’t just about curing ailments—they were about creating balance between the physical and spiritual realms, shaping the fate of the community and individual alike. The rituals and magical traditions kept alive by these healers, passed down through generations, form the backbone of much of the folk magic and healing traditions we still hold dear today, across every culture and continent.
Together, these healers, witches, and midwives ensured that plant wisdom endured, despite waves of persecution and cultural suppression. Their knowledge, rooted in observation, experience, and an intimate relationship with the natural world, has survived through oral tradition, grimoires, and folk practices still alive today. As Wolf D. Storl beautifully explores in his book, "The Herbal Lore of Wise Women and Wortcunners: The Healing Power of Medicinal Plants," these healers were the custodians of a co-evolutionary bond between humans and plants, a lineage of healing that modern herbalists, midwives, and plant medicine practitioners continue to uphold.
Alongside hedge witches and alewives we also find Jamu healers of Indonesia, Tlahuelpuchis and Nahua healers in Mexico, root doctors and bone setters in the African diaspora and Appalachia, Mambos and Houngans of Haitian Vodou, Druidic herbalists and bards in Celtic traditions, Siddha and Ayurvedic healers in India, and Babaylans in the Philippines, each of whom carried their own rich spiritual traditions centered around plants. Curanderas/os in Latin America, blending Indigenous and Spanish traditions, work with a vast knowledge of herbal remedies, rituals, and spiritual cleansings to heal not just the body, but the spirit as well. Orishas, divine spirits in the Yoruba tradition, act as intermediaries, guiding their followers in the use of plant-based medicines for healing, protection, and maintaining harmony between the physical and spiritual realms. Similarly, Siberian shamans and Mongolian shamans, deeply rooted in Tengrism, use sacred herbs like juniper, wormwood, and rhodiola for entering trance states, spiritual guidance, and healing rituals. These healers, across all continents, do not only tend to the physical body but also protect, preserve, and honor the profound connection between the spiritual world, nature and us. They work as mediators between the human and spirit realms, maintaining ancestral wisdom, ritual traditions, and the sacred bond that ties humans to the earth and our evolution. These traditions show the universal, timeless role of plants in spiritual and medicinal practices, as they bridge realms and heal both body and soul.
The Science of Co-Evolution: Plants and Human Biology
Modern science increasingly validates what Indigenous traditions and folk healers have long understood: plants and humans are deeply interconnected. Plants have influenced the evolution of human biology, from the development of the liver enzymes that metabolize plant compounds to the neuroreceptors shaped by interactions with psychoactive substances. Sacred plants like peyote contain alkaloids that interact with serotonin receptors in the brain, fostering altered states of consciousness that have inspired spiritual practices, creativity, and social cohesion.
The reciprocal nature of this relationship is evident in agriculture and plant domestication, where humans have selectively bred plants for desirable traits, while plants have, in turn, shaped human diets, economies, and migrations. This co-evolutionary dance continues today, as we explore how plants can address modern challenges like mental health crises, ecological collapse, and spiritual disconnection.
Protecting Sacred Plants
The Sacred Dance of Co-Evolution
The conservation of sacred plants (which all are) is not merely an ecological issue; it is a cultural and spiritual imperative. These plants, which have co-evolved with human societies for millennia, embody deep relationships with indigenous peoples, their ancestors, and the natural world. They are not just resources, they are teachers, guides, and protectors of ancient wisdom. Overharvesting, habitat destruction, and climate change pose severe threats to these plants, severing the intricate, interdependent relationships that have sustained both plant and human communities for centuries. Plants like peyote, ayahuasca, iboga, and others face mounting pressures from modern exploitation, often driven by a commodified demand that disregards the sacred nature of these plants.
The ayahuasca plant, used for centuries by indigenous Amazonian tribes in sacred rituals, has recently become a focal point for western spiritual seekers. This plant is traditionally prepared as a brew with Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, delivering profound psychoactive effects that facilitate deep, spiritual journeys. However, the global demand for ayahuasca has led to overharvesting of the plants used in the brew. In films like Embrace of the Serpent, the devastation caused by outside exploitation is poignantly depicted, showing the erosion of indigenous practices and the degradation of the land that sustains these sacred plants. The film highlights the profound cultural impact of overexploitation, illustrating how the plant's true significance is often lost when it is treated merely as a commodity. That movie is excellent and I heartedly recommend it to anyone interested in ethnobotany and entheogens as well.
Indigenous shamans, like the revered Maria Sabina, have long warned of the disrespect shown by those who seek to use these plants without understanding their sacred role in the natural and spiritual worlds. Maria Sabina famously spoke of the harm done when her sacred psilocybin mushrooms were misused and exploited by outsiders, pointing to a lack of respect for the ancient traditions that held these plants in reverence.
In addition to ayahuasca, iboga (from Tabernanthe iboga) is another entheogen that is suffering from overharvesting. Iboga is traditionally used by the Bwiti people of Gabon for spiritual initiation and healing, particularly in the treatment of addiction. However, the rising demand for iboga in the West for therapeutic purposes has placed immense pressure on the plant, threatening its survival. The global desire for these plants often ignores the delicate cultural contexts and spiritual systems in which they are embedded, treating them as tools for individual experience rather than acknowledging the broader co-evolutionary web that sustains them.
This trend of exploitation speaks to a larger issue, the rampant mistreatment of entheogens that are deeply tied to the spiritual and cultural practices of indigenous peoples. When we treat these plants as mere commodities, we strip them of their sacred significance and risk destabilizing the ecosystems they thrive in. The loss of these plants would not only be a blow to indigenous cultures but also to the genetic and ecological heritage they carry.
Efforts like the Indigenous Peyote Conservation Initiative (IPCI) remind us that the preservation of these sacred plants must go hand in hand with honoring indigenous stewardship. Indigenous leaders understand the deep, reciprocal relationship between humans and plants, and their leadership in conservation efforts is crucial to ensuring that these plants are protected and respected. Just as the mycelial network thrives through interconnectedness, so too does humanity’s relationship with the sacred plants, it is through mutual respect and care that these plants will continue to guide us, spiritually and medicinally, for generations to come.
As we seek to reconnect with these plants, it is vital that we approach them with reverence, humility, and gratitude, understanding that they are not just tools for our personal growth, but sacred beings that have been in partnership with us for millennia. Protecting these plants is not just about saving a species; it is about protecting the wisdom, culture, and spiritual practices that have co-evolved alongside them. Only through this recognition of our interconnectedness can we ensure the survival of these sacred plants and the continuation of the wisdom they offer.
Challenges to the Co-Evolutionary Bond
As global interest in plant medicines grows, there is a danger of losing the sacred context that has guided their use for millennia. Cultural appropriation, commodification, and unsustainable harvesting practices risk severing the co-evolutionary bond between humans and plants. Without the wisdom of Indigenous shamans and folk healers, we risk reducing plants to mere commodities, ignoring their role as partners in our shared evolution.The commodification of sacred plants, often stripped of their cultural and spiritual significance, undermines the reciprocal relationship Indigenous peoples have cultivated with them. Practices that reduce sacred ceremonies to wellness trends or recreational experiences disregard the deep ecological and spiritual lessons these plants have to offer.
The overharvesting of peyote in regions like Texas and Mexico threatens its survival. Indigenous communities, who have long stewarded these plants, are now leading efforts to restore their populations, demonstrating that the survival of sacred plants depends on respecting Indigenous knowledge.
A Vision for the Future: Honoring Indigenous Wisdom
To ensure the survival of our co-evolutionary relationship with plants, I feel we must center Indigenous voices and wisdom. This means supporting efforts to protect sacred lands like Wirikuta in Mexico, advocating for the rights of Indigenous communities to access and steward sacred plants, and approaching plant medicine with humility and respect.
As humanity faces ecological and spiritual crises, the teachings of Indigenous shamans and folk healers offer a path forward. They remind us that our survival is intertwined with the survival of the plants and the ecosystems that sustain us. The co-evolution of humans and plants is not just a story of the past, it is a living relationship, one that holds the potential to guide us toward a more balanced and harmonious future.
As the Wixarika people teach:
The plants do not belong to us; we belong to them. They are our ancestors, our guides, and our partners in life. If we listen to them, they will teach us how to heal the Earth and ourselves.
Today, there is a resurgence of interest in psychedelics for mental health and spiritual growth, with clinical studies exploring psilocybin, MDMA, and DMT for treating depression, PTSD, and addiction. Countries like the Netherlands and parts of the U.S. are decriminalizing these substances, while Indigenous and underground movements continue practicing traditional psychedelic ceremonies. The revival reflects a growing recognition of their historical significance and a renewed search for deeper meaning in an increasingly materialistic world.
Reciprocity as the Heart of Co-Evolution
Nature's Teachings on Interdependence
Asa I come to the end of this post, I am left with a beautiful awareness that at the heart of this co evolution is reciprocity. Nature is filled with intricate relationships that demonstrate the power of reciprocity where giving and receiving is what fuels the survival and thriving of ecosystems. The mycelial network stretching beneath the forest floor, offers such a powerful example of how cooperation, not competition, drives evolution. Mycelium truly acts as nature’s internet, connecting plants and trees to one another, allowing them to share nutrients, water, and chemical signals. It's a constant exchange of resources…trees with deep roots share surplus sugars with those in need, fungi pass minerals from the soil to plants, and in return, plants offer them carbohydrates produced through photosynthesis. This cooperative system enables whole ecosystems to flourish, showing us that survival isn't just about individual strength, it's about the strength of the collective.
But the lessons don't stop at fungi. The interconnectedness of trees through their roots and fungal networks teaches us a profound lesson about empathy and support. Trees, especially in older forests, often engage in what can only be described as mutual caregiving. When one tree is injured or stressed, nearby trees often redirect nutrients to support it, strengthening the entire forest ecosystem. Some species, like the Douglas fir, have been observed sharing nutrients with weaker or younger members of their species, ensuring that even in hard times, no tree stands alone. This reciprocal exchange of care mirrors the very essence of what it means to coexist and thrive together in harmony.
In human society, we often focus on individual achievement, but nature continually teaches us that mutual aid and cooperation are the true keys to resilience. The very survival of a forest depends on the collaboration of countless beings, from the smallest fungi to the tallest trees. This is nature's own version of co-evolution, where species evolve not in isolation, but in tandem with others, each benefiting from the strengths of the others. This reciprocal relationship is the bedrock of biodiversity and sustainability.
For us, these examples offer a call to reconsider our own relationships, both with each other and with the natural world. Are we living in ways that nurture interdependence, or do we prioritize separation and self-interest? The example of the mycelial network and tree communities shows that reciprocity is not a weak trait. That it’s what keeps us alive and flourishing. Just as trees do not hoard resources but share them for the greater good, we too must learn to give back to the world that nourishes us. By understanding these models of mutual aid in nature, we can mirror them in our societies and rediscover the deep, biologically encoded wisdom of co-evolution.
This is where the wisdom of indigenous shamans comes into play. For millennia, they have been stewards of this reciprocal relationship, living in harmony with plants, fungi, and the natural world. They understand that their survival depends not on taking, but on giving back to the earth through rituals, ceremonies, and reciprocal offerings. This is not just an idealistic view; it is a necessary one for the survival of our species and the planet itself. Indigenous wisdom teaches us how to approach plants, not as commodities, but as partners in our evolutionary journey. Just as we must care for the trees and the fungi, we must care for the wisdom that has been passed down through generations, ensuring that the circle of life continues unbroken.
In the co-evolutionary dance, plants, trees, fungi, and humans are bound together in a sacred web of interdependence. The teachings are clear: reciprocity, cooperation, and care are the heart of evolution, and by embracing these values, we move toward a future of greater harmony and understanding not just with each other, but with all of life. The co-evolution of humans and plants depends on this balance. Plants offer their medicine, food, and wisdom, but they require respect, care, and protection in return.
Integrating The Lessons from Nature:
What Plants, Trees, and Fungi Teach Us About Evolution and Cooperation
Humanity's co-evolution with plants is a profound, ongoing story of mutual growth, interdependence, and wisdom. From the ancient roots of our relationship with wild medicinal plants to the transformative power of entheogens, we have evolved not in isolation, but alongside the natural world, shaping and being shaped by it. These plants, trees, and fungi have influenced our biology, culture, consciousness, and spirituality, offering us more than just physical sustenance. They are our teachers in many different ways. Indigenous shamans and plant medicine keepers, as stewards of this sacred knowledge, have long understood the depth of these relationships, guiding us through rituals and ceremonies that deepen our connection with nature.
In particular, entheogens, plants like ayahuasca, psilocybin mushrooms, Iboga, San Pedro and peyote (and others) have played an integral role in helping shape human consciousness, opening gateways to new realms of understanding and connectedness. The biochemical relationship between humans and these plants is a testament to our co-evolution, as they activate neural pathways that foster insights about our place in the web of life. These sacred teachers, alongside the vast, hidden mycelial networks that sustain entire ecosystems, remind us that evolution is not a solitary pursuit. It is an intricate dance of cooperation, mutual aid, and respect for the collective.
As we move forward in a world that often prioritizes individualism and competition, the wisdom of the plants and the indigenous teachers who have safeguarded this knowledge calls us to reconnect with the essence of cooperation. By embracing the co-evolutionary bond we share with the natural world, we can rediscover a path that honors interconnectedness and shared responsibility. It is through these ancient, mutual relationships that we can learn not only how to survive, but how to truly thrive…….together, as part of a living, breathing web of existence. By observing and learning from these systems, we can rediscover ways to connect with one another and the Earth, nurturing the symbiotic relationships that sustain all life. Plants, trees, and fungi have always been our teachers, showing us that the essence of evolution lies not in domination but in collaboration. Their wisdom offers us more than just practical lessons for survival; it weaves us back into the very fabric of existence. Their teachings remind us of our deep and ancient connection, a bond that transcends time and roots us in the intricate, beautiful web of life. Every cell, every strand of our DNA carries the whispers of this sacred alliance, a reminder that we are not merely living on the land, but are, in every sense, of the land. We are not separate from nature. We are nature, pulsing with the rhythm of the earth, shaped and guided by the plants that have walked alongside us throughout history.
References
Books
Balick, Michael J. Plants and People. The University of Chicago Press, 2009.
Margulis, Lynn. Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at Evolution. Basic Books, 1998.
Mate, Gabor In the Realm of Hungry Ghosts: Close Encounters with Addiction
McKenna, Terence. Food of the Gods: The Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge. Bantam Books, 1992.
Narby, Jeremy. The Cosmic Serpent: DNA and the Origins of Knowledge. TarcherPerigee, 1998.
Pollan, Michael. The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-Eye View of the World. Random House, 2001.
Rätsch, C. The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications. Park Street Press, (2005)
Schultes, Richard Evans. Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing, and Hallucinogenic Powers. Healing Arts Press, 1979.
Sheldrake, Merlin. Entangled Life: How Fungi Make Our Worlds, Change Our Minds & Shape Our Futures. Random House, 2020.
Stamets, Paul. Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World. Ten Speed Press, 2005.
Wohlleben, Peter. The Hidden Life of Trees: What They Feel, How They Communicate – Discoveries from a Secret World. Greystone Books, 2016.
Simard, Suzanne. Finding the Mother Tree: Discovering the Wisdom of the Forest. Alfred A. Knopf, 2021.
Storl, Wolf, The Herbal Lore of Wise Women and Wortcunners: The Healing Power of Medicinal Plants, North Atlantic Books, 1986
Stout, D.L., and Pattanayak, S.N.P., eds. Plant Secondary Metabolites: Occurrence, Structure, and Role in the Human Diet. Springer, 2013.
Yance, Donald R. Adaptogens in Medical Herbalism: Elite Herbs and Natural Compounds for Mastering Stress, Aging, and Chronic Disease. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press, 2013.
Documentaries and Media
Attenborough, David. The Private Life of Plants. BBC, 1995.
Ciro Guerra, director. Embrace of the Serpent (El abrazo de la serpiente). 2015.
Schwartzberg, Louie, director. Fantastic Fungi. 2019.
TED-Ed. "How Plants Defend Themselves Against Herbivores." YouTube, 2016. Link to video.
BBC Earth. How Plants and Animals Coevolve. BBC Earth, 2015.
Simard, Suzanne. "How Trees Talk to Each Other." TEDx, 2016. Link to video.
Websites
Botanic Garden. National Botanic Garden of Wales. National Botanic Garden of Wales.
PFAF.org. Plants for a Future. Plants for a Future Database, 2020.
Scientific Journals
De Roode, J.A.R.L. "The Evolution of Plant Defenses." Journal of Chemical Ecology, vol. 21, no. 12, 2015, pp. 1100-1120.
McLeod, P.J.K., and McGregor, D.H.S. "Coevolution of Plants and Herbivores: An Overview." Ecology Letters, vol. 16, no. 7, 2013, pp. 784-795.
Online Resources
National Academy of Sciences. Plant Evolution and Ecology: Herbivory. National Academy of Sciences, 2017.
University of California, Berkeley. The Ecology of Plant-Herbivore Interactions. University of California, 2018.
Academic Papers
McLeod, P.J.K. "Coevolution of Herbivores and Plants." Ecology and Evolution, vol. 14, no. 1, 2014, pp. 22-34.
Van Der Meijden, P.J.J.L.W. "Seed Dispersal by Herbivores: A Review." Ecology Letters, vol. 10, no. 3, 2012, pp. 345-358.
Historical Perspectives
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. The Metamorphosis of Plants. Suhrkamp Verlag, 1790.
Humboldt, Alexander von. Cosmos: A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe. Henry G. Bohn, 1845.
Organizations Protecting Sacred Plants
Cactus Conservation Institute. (n.d.). Dedicated to the Study and Preservation of Vulnerable Cacti. https://cactusconservation.org/
Decriminalize Nature. (n.d.). Empower People to Decriminalize Entheogens. https://decriminalizenature.org/empower/
Dennis McKenna. (n.d.). McKenna Academy of Natural Philosophy. https://mckenna.academy/
Indigenous Peyote Conservation Initiative (IPCI). (n.d.). Empowering Indigenous Communities to Reconnect with, Regenerate, and Conserve Their Sacred Peyote Medicine. https://www.ipci.life/
International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Service (ICEERS). (n.d.). International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Service. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Center_for_Ethnobotanical_Education%2C_Research_and_Service
Native American Church of North America (NACNA). (n.d.). Advocating for the Preservation of Peyote Habitat. https://filtermag.org/indigenous-church-protect-peyote/
Sacred Plant Alliance. (n.d.). Sacred Plant Alliance - Home. https://sacredplantalliance.org/
United Plant Savers. (n.d.). Peyote – Lophophora williamsii. https://unitedplantsavers.org/peyote-lophophora-williamsii-2/
Disclaimer : This blog post is not an endorsement of the use of psychoactive substances, nor is it intended as medical advice. I am not recommending or advising the use of any plant or mushroom, and I strongly encourage you to consult with a healthcare professional before making any decisions regarding their use. Please approach these substances with caution, respect, and awareness, understanding that they may not be suitable for everyone.
As both a mother and a clinician, I urge you to take the time to deeply educate yourself about psychoactive plants and mushrooms. These sacred medicines can also carry risks. Many psychoactive plants and fungi can be toxic in certain doses, and their effects can vary greatly from person to person. If you have a history of chronic illness, addiction, or mental health conditions, especially those such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder—it is crucial to seek professional guidance before considering the use of entheogens, as they may not be safe or suitable for everyone. Additionally, please be aware that many of these substances are still illegal in various parts of the world, and their use may come with legal consequences. ❤️
